Educational Statistics and Research Methods (ESRM) Program*
University of Arkansas
Published
September 16, 2024
0.1 Today’s Class
Review Homework 1
The building blocks: The basics of mathematical statistics:
Random variables: Definition & Types
Univariate distribution
General terminology (e.g., sufficient statistics)
Univariate normal (aka Gaussian)
Other widely used univariate distributions
Types of distributions: Marginal | Conditional | Joint
Expected values: means, variances, and the algebra of expectations
Linear combinations of random variables
The finished product: How the GLM fits within statistics
The GLM with the normal distribution
The statistical assumptions of the GLM
How to assess these assumptions
1 ESRM 64503: Homework 1
1.1 Question 2
Copy and paste your R syntax and R output that calculates the group Senior-Old’s standard error of group mean (use the data and model we’ve used in class).
Aim: Test whether the group mean of senior-old significantly higher than the baseline (here, 0 score)
2 Unit 1: Random Variables & Statistical Distribution
2.1 Definition of Random Variables
Random: situations in which the certainty of the outcome is unknown and is at least in part due to chance
Variable: a value that may change give the scope of a given problem or set of operations
Random Variable: a variable whose outcome depends on chance (possible values might represent the possible outcomes of a yet-to-be performed experiment)
Today, we will denote a random variable with a lower-cased: x
Question: which one in the following options is random variable:
any company’s revenue in 2024
one specific company’s monthly revenue in 2024
companies whose revenue over than $30 billions
My answer: only (a)
2.2 Types of Random Variables
Continuous
Examples of continuous random variables:
x represent the height of a person, draw at random
Y (the outcome/DV in a GLM)
Some variables like exam score or motivation scores are not “true” continuous variables, but it is convenient to consider them as “continuous”
Discrete (also called categorical, generally)
Example of discrete random variables:
x represents the gender of a person, drawn at random
Y (outcomes like yes/no; pass/not pass; master / not master a skill; survive / die)
Mixture of Continuous and Discrete:
Example of mixture: \begin{equation}
x =
\begin{cases}
RT & \text{between 0 and 45 seconds} \\
0 & \text{otherwise}
\end{cases}
\end{equation}
2.3 Key Features of Random Variable
Random variables each are described by a probability density / mass function (PDF) –f(x)
PDF indicates relative frequency of occurrence
A PDF is a math function that gives rough picture of the distribution from which a random variable is draw
The type of random variable dictates the name and nature of these functions:
Continuous random variables:
f(x) is called a probability density function
Area under curve must equal to 1 (found by calculus integration)
Height of curve (the function value f(x)):
Can be any positive number
Reflects relative likelihood of an observation occurring
Discrete random variables:
f(x) is called a probability mass function
Sum across all values must equal 1
Note
Both max and min values of temperature can be considered as continuous random variables.
Question 1: what are the probabilities of integrating all values of max and min temperatures ({1, 1} or {0.5, 0.5})
Answer: it is {1, 1} for max and min temperatures. Because they are two separated random variables.
⌘+C
library(tidyverse)temp <-read.csv("data/temp_fayetteville.csv")temp$value_F <- (temp$value /10*1.8) +32temp |>ggplot() +geom_density(aes(x = value_F, fill = datatype), col ="white", alpha = .8) +labs(x ="Max/Min Temperature (F) at Fayetteville, AR (Sep-2023)", caption ="Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (https://www.noaa.gov/)") +scale_x_continuous(breaks =seq(min(temp$value_F), max(temp$value_F), by =5)) +scale_fill_manual(values =c("tomato", "turquoise")) +theme_classic(base_size =13)
2.4 Other key Terms
The sample space is the set of all values that a random variable x can take:
Example 1: The sample space for a random variable x from a normal distribution x \sim N(\mu_x, \sigma^2_x) is (-\infty, +\infty).
Example 2: The sample space for a random variable x representing the outcome of a coin flip is {H, T}
Example 3: The sample space for a random variable x representing the outcome of a roll of a die is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
When using generalized models, the trick is to pick a distribution with a sample space that matches the range of values obtainable by data
Logistic regression - Match Bernoulli distribution (Example 2)
Poisson regression - Match Poisson distribution (Example 3)
2.5 Uses of Distributions in Data Analysis
Statistical models make distributional assumptions on various parameters and / or parts of data
These assumptions govern:
How models are estimated
How inferences are made
How missing data may be imputed
If data do not follow an assumed distribution, inferences may be inaccurate
Sometimes a very big problem, other times not so much
Therefore, it can be helpful to check distributional assumptions prior to running statistical analysis
2.6 Continuous Univariate distributions
To demonstrate how continuous distributions work and look, we will discuss three:
Uniform distribution
Normal distribution
Chi-square distribution
Each are described a set of parameters, which we will later see are what give us our inferences when we analysis data
What we then do is put constraints on those parameters based on hypothesized effects in data
2.7 Uniform distribution
The uniform distribution is how to help set up how continuous distributions work
Typically, used for simulation studies that parameters are randomly generated
For a continuous random variable x that ranges from (a, b), the uniform probability density function is:
f(x) = \frac{1}{b-a}
The uniform distribution has two parameters
x =seq(0, 3, .1)y =dunif(x, min =0, max =3)ggplot() +geom_point(aes(x = x, y = y)) +geom_path(aes(x = x, y = y)) +theme_bw()
#| standalone: true#| viewerHeight: 800library(shiny)library(bslib)library(ggplot2)library(dplyr)library(tidyr)set.seed(1234)# Define UI for application that draws a histogramui <- fluidPage( # Application title titlePanel("Uniform distribution"), # Sidebar with a slider input for number of bins sidebarLayout( sidebarPanel( sliderInput("a", "Lower Bound (a):", min = 1, max = 20, value = 1, animate = animationOptions(interval = 5000, loop = TRUE)), uiOutput("b_slider") ), # Show a plot of the generated distribution mainPanel( plotOutput("distPlot") ) ))# Define server logic required to draw a histogramx <- seq(0, 40, .02)server <- function(input, output) { observeEvent(input$a, { output$b_slider <<- renderUI({ sliderInput("b", "Upper Bound (b):", min = as.numeric(input$a), max = 40, value = as.numeric(input$a) + 1) }) # browser() y <<- reactive({dunif(x, min = as.numeric(input$a), max = as.numeric(input$b))}) }) # browser() observe({ output$distPlot <- renderPlot({ # generate bins based on input$bins from ui.R ggplot() + aes(x = x, y = y())+ geom_point() + geom_path() + labs(x = "x", y = "probability") + theme_bw() + theme(text = element_text(size = 20)) }) })}# Run the application shinyApp(ui = ui, server = server)
2.8 More on the Uniform Distribution
To demonstrate how PDFs work, we will try a few values:
conditions <-tribble(~x, ~a, ~b, .5, 0, 1, .75, 0, 1,15, 0, 20,15, 10, 20) |>mutate(y =dunif(x, min = a, max = b))conditions
# A tibble: 4 × 4
x a b y
<dbl> <dbl> <dbl> <dbl>
1 0.5 0 1 1
2 0.75 0 1 1
3 15 0 20 0.05
4 15 10 20 0.1
The uniform PDF has the feature that all values of x are equally likely across the sample space of the distribution
Therefore, you do not see x in the PDF f(x)
The mean of the uniform distribution is \frac{1}{2}(a+b)
The variance of the uniform distribution is \frac{1}{12}(b-a)^2
2.9 Univariate Normal Distribution
For a continuous random variable x (ranging from -\infty to \infty), the univariate normal distribution function is:
The shape of the distribution is governed by two parameters:
The mean \mu_x
The variance \sigma^2_x
These parameters are called sufficient statistics (they contain all the information about the distribution)
The skewness (lean) and kurtosis (peakedness) are fixed
Standard notation for normal distributions is x\sim N(\mu_x, \sigma^2_x)
Read as: “x follows a normal distribution with a mean \mu_x and a variance \sigma^2_x”
Linear combinations of random variables following normal distributions result in a random variable that is normally distributed
2.10 Univariate Normal Distribution in R: pnorm
Density (dnorm), distribution function (pnorm), quantile function (qnorm) and random generation (rnorm) for the normal distribution with mean equal to mean and standard deviation equal to sd.
Z =seq(-5, 5, .1) # Z-scoreggplot() +aes(x = Z, y =pnorm(q = Z, lower.tail =TRUE)) +geom_point() +geom_path() +labs(x ="Z-score", y ="Cumulative probability",title ="`pnorm()` gives the cumulative probability function P(X < T)")
Joint distributions are multivariate distributions
We will use joint distributions to introduce two topics
Joint distributions of independent variables
Joint distributions – used in maximum likelihood estimation
3.4 Joint Distributions of Independent Random Variables
Random variables are said to be independent if the occurrence of one event makes it neither more nor less probable of another event
For joint distributions, this means: f(x,z)=f(x)f(z)
In our example, flipping a penny and flipping a dime are independent – so we can complete the following table of their joint distribution:
z = H_d
z = T_d
Marginal (Penny)
x = H_p
\color{tomato}{f(x=H_p, z=H_d)}
\color{tomato}{f(x=H_p, z=T_d)}
\color{turquoise}{f(z=H_p)}
x = T_p
\color{tomato}{f(x= T_p, z=H_d)}
\color{tomato}{f(x=T_p, z=T_d)}
\color{turquoise}{f(z=T_d)}
Marginal (Dime)
\color{turquoise}{f(z=H_d)}
\color{turquoise}{f(z=T_d)}
3.5 Joint Distributions of Independent Random Variables
Because the coin flips are independent, this because:
z = H_d
z = T_d
Marginal (Penny)
x = H_p
\color{tomato}{f(x=H_p)f( z=H_d)}
\color{tomato}{f(x=H_p)f( z=T_d)}
\color{turquoise}{f(z=H_p)}
x = T_p
\color{tomato}{f(x= T_p)f( z=H_d)}
\color{tomato}{f(x=T_p)f( z=T_d)}
\color{turquoise}{f(z=T_d)}
Marginal (Dime)
\color{turquoise}{f(z=H_d)}
\color{turquoise}{f(z=T_d)}
Then, with numbers:
z = H_d
z = T_d
Marginal (Penny)
x = H_p
\color{tomato}{.25}
\color{tomato}{.25}
\color{turquoise}{.5}
x = T_p
\color{tomato}{.25}
\color{tomato}{.25}
\color{turquoise}{.5}
Marginal (Dime)
\color{turquoise}{.5}
\color{turquoise}{.5}
3.6 Marginalizing Across a Joint Distribution
If you had a joint distribution, \color{orchid}{f(x, z)}, but wanted the marginal distribution of either variable (f(x) or f(z)) you would have to marginalize across one dimension of the joint distribution.
For categorical random variables, marginalize = sum across every value of z
f(x) = \sum_zf(x, z)
For example, f(x = H_p) = f(x = H_p, z=H_d) +f(x = H_p, z=T_d)=.5
For continuous random variables, marginalize = integrate across z
The integral:
f(x) = \int_zf(x,z)dz
3.7 Conditional Distributions
For two random variables x and z, a conditional distribution is written as: f(z|x)
The distribution of z given x
The conditional distribution is equal to the joint distribution divided by the marginal distribution of the conditioning random variable
f(z|x) = \frac{f(z,x)}{f(x)}
Conditional distributions are found everywhere in statistics
The general linear model uses the conditional distribution variable
Y \sim N(\beta_0+\beta_1X, \sigma^2_e)
3.8 Example: Conditional Distribution
For two discrete random variables with {0, 1} values, the conditional distribution can be shown in a contingency table:
Expected values are statistics taken the sample space of a random variable: they are essentially weighted averages
set.seed(1234)x =rnorm(100, mean =0, sd =1)weights =dnorm(x, mean =0, sd =1)mean(weights * x)
[1] -0.05567835
The weights used in computing this average correspond to the probabilities (for a discrete random variable) or to the densities (for a continuous random variable)
Note
The expected value is represented by E(x)
The actual statistic that is being weighted by the PDF is put into the parenthesis where x is now
Expected values allow us to understand what a statistical model implies about data, for instance:
How a GLM specifies the (conditional) mean and variance of a DV
4.2 Expected Value Calculation
For discrete random variables, the expected value is found by:
E(x) = \sum_x xP(X=x)
For example, the expected value of a roll of a die is:
A linear combination is an expression constructed from a set of terms by multiplying each term by a constant and then adding the results
x = c + a_1z_1+a_2z_2+a_3z_3 +\cdots+a_nz_n
More generally, linear combinations of random variables have specific implications for the mean, variance, and possibly covariance of the new random variable
As such, there are predicable ways in which the means, variances, and covariances change
cov(x, z); cov(x+c_, z) # decimal place issue, near() accepts two values' diff less than .00001
[1] 334.8316
[1] 334.8316
Products of Constants:
E(cx) = cE(x) \\
\text{Var}(cx) = c^2\text{Var}(x) \\
\text{Cov}(cx, dz) = c*d*\text{Cov}(x, z)
Imagine you wanted to convert weight from pounds to kilograms (where 1 pound = .453 kg) and convert height from inches to cm (where 1 inch = 2.54 cm)
If a given test is significant, then it is saying that your data do not come from a normal distribution
In practice, test will give diverging information quite frequently: the best way to evaluate normality is to consider both plots and tests (approximate = good)
shapiro.test(mod5$residuals)
Shapiro-Wilk normality test
data: mod5$residuals
W = 0.95055, p-value = 0.3756
5.9 Wrapping Up
Today was an introduction to mathematical statistics as a way to understand the implications statistical models make about data
Although many of these topics do not seem directly relevant, they help provide insights that untrained analysts may not easily attain
---title: "Lecture 04: Distribution and Estimation"author: "Jihong Zhang*, Ph.D"institute: | Educational Statistics and Research Methods (ESRM) Program* University of Arkansasdate: "2024-09-16"sidebar: falseexecute: echo: true warning: falseoutput-location: columnformat: html: page-layout: full toc: true toc-depth: 2 toc-expand: true lightbox: true code-fold: false uark-revealjs: scrollable: true chalkboard: true embed-resources: false code-fold: false number-sections: false footer: "ESRM 64503: Lecture 04: Distribution and Estimation" slide-number: c/t tbl-colwidths: auto output-file: slides-index.html# filters:# - shinylive---## Today's Class- Review Homework 1- [The building blocks]{style="color: tomato"}: **The basics of mathematical statistics:** - Random variables: Definition & Types - Univariate distribution - General terminology (e.g., sufficient statistics) - Univariate normal (aka Gaussian) - Other widely used univariate distributions - Types of distributions: Marginal \| Conditional \| Joint - Expected values: means, variances, and the algebra of expectations - Linear combinations of random variables- [The finished product]{style="color: violet"}: **How the GLM fits within statistics** - The GLM with the normal distribution - The statistical assumptions of the GLM - How to assess these assumptions# ESRM 64503: Homework 1## Question 2<details>- Copy and paste your R syntax and R output that calculates the group **Senior-Old's standard error of group mean** (use the data and model we've used in class). - **Aim**: Test whether the group mean of senior-old significantly higher than the baseline (here, 0 score)$$\mathbf{Test = \beta_0 +\beta_1Senior + \beta_2New +\beta_3Senior*New}$$- The group mean of Senior-Old is $\beta_0 + \beta_1$.- Based on algebra for variance, we know hat$$Var(\beta_0 + \beta_1) = Var(\beta_0)+Var(\beta_1) +2*Cov(\beta_0, \beta_1)$$- `vcor` function provides the variances and covariances for $\beta_0$, $\beta_1$, $\beta_2$, and $\beta_3$```{r}#| output-location: default# R syntaxlibrary(ESRM64503)library(tidyverse)model1 <-lm(Test ~ Senior + New + Senior * New, data = dataTestExperiment)data("dataTestExperiment")Var_beta_0 <-vcov(model1)[1,1]Var_beta_1 <-vcov(model1)[2,2]Cov_beta_0_1 <-vcov(model1)[1,2]Var_Test_SeniorOld <- Var_beta_0 + Var_beta_1 +2*Cov_beta_0_1(SE_Test_SeniorOld <-sqrt(Var_Test_SeniorOld)) ```</details>## Question 3<details>- Copy and paste your R syntax and R output that calculates the standard error of conditional main effect of New (New vs. Old) when Senior = 1. - **Aim**: Test whether the conditional main effect of New when Senior significantly different from 0 - In other words, when individuals are senior, whether new or old instruction method has significantly differences in their test scores$$\beta_{2|Senior =1} = \beta_2 + \beta_3 * 1$$- Based on algebra for variance, we know that$$Var(\beta_2 + \beta_3) = Var(\beta_2)+Var(\beta_3) +2*Cov(\beta_2, \beta_3)$$- `vcor` function provides the variances and covariances for $\beta_0$, $\beta_1$, $\beta_2$, and $\beta_3$ ```{r}#| output-location: default# R syntaxVar_beta_2 <-vcov(model1)[3,3]Var_beta_3 <-vcov(model1)[4,4]Cov_beta_2_3 <-vcov(model1)[3,4]Var_betaofNew_Senior1 <- Var_beta_2 + Var_beta_3 +2*Cov_beta_2_3(SE_betaofNew_Senior1 <-sqrt(Var_betaofNew_Senior1)) ```</details># Unit 1: Random Variables & Statistical Distribution## Definition of Random Variables- [**Random:**]{.underline} situations in which the certainty of the outcome is unknown and is at least in part due to chance- [**Variable:**]{.underline} a value that may change give the scope of a given problem or set of operations- [**Random Variable**]{.underline}: a variable whose outcome depends on chance (possible values might represent the possible outcomes of a yet-to-be performed experiment)Today, we will denote a random variable with a lower-cased: ***x*****Question**: which one in the following options is random variable:a. any company's revenue in 2024b. one specific company's monthly revenue in 2024c. companies whose revenue over than $30 billions**My answer**: <span class="mohu">only (a)</span>## Types of Random Variables1. **Continuous** - Examples of continuous random variables: - ***x*** represent the height of a person, draw at random - *Y* (the outcome/DV in a GLM) - Some variables like **exam score or motivation scores** are not "true" continuous variables, but it is convenient to consider them as "continuous"2. **Discrete** (also called categorical, generally) - Example of discrete random variables: - ***x*** represents the gender of a person, drawn at random - *Y* (outcomes like yes/no; pass/not pass; master / not master a skill; survive / die)3. **Mixture of Continuous and Discrete**: - Example of mixture: \begin{equation} x = \begin{cases} RT & \text{between 0 and 45 seconds} \\ 0 & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} \end{equation}## Key Features of Random Variable1. Random variables each are described by a **probability density / mass function (PDF) –** $f(x)$ - PDF indicates relative frequency of occurrence - A PDF is a math function that gives rough picture of the distribution from which a random variable is draw2. The type of random variable dictates the name and nature of these functions: - [Continuous random variables]{style="color: tomato"}: - $f(x)$ is called a probability density function - Area under curve must equal to 1 (found by calculus integration) - Height of curve (the function value $f(x)$): - Can be any positive number - Reflects relative likelihood of an observation occurring - [Discrete random variables]{style="color: violet"}: - $f(x)$ is called a probability mass function - Sum across all values must equal 1------------------------------------------------------------------------::: {.callout-note style="font-size: 1.4em;"}Both max and min values of temperature can be considered as continuous random variables.:::- Question 1: what are the probabilities of integrating all values of max and min temperatures ({1, 1} or {0.5, 0.5})- **Answer**: <span class="mohu"> it is {1, 1} for max and min temperatures. Because they are two separated random variables.</span>```{r}#| code-fold: true#| output-location: default#| fig-align: center#| fig-asp: .5library(tidyverse)temp <-read.csv("data/temp_fayetteville.csv")temp$value_F <- (temp$value /10*1.8) +32temp |>ggplot() +geom_density(aes(x = value_F, fill = datatype), col ="white", alpha = .8) +labs(x ="Max/Min Temperature (F) at Fayetteville, AR (Sep-2023)", caption ="Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (https://www.noaa.gov/)") +scale_x_continuous(breaks =seq(min(temp$value_F), max(temp$value_F), by =5)) +scale_fill_manual(values =c("tomato", "turquoise")) +theme_classic(base_size =13) ```## Other key Terms- The sample space is the set of all values that a random variable x can take: - **Example 1:** The sample space for a random variable x from a normal distribution $x \sim N(\mu_x, \sigma^2_x)$ is $(-\infty, +\infty)$. - **Example 2:** The sample space for a random variable x representing the outcome of a coin flip is {H, T} - **Example 3:** The sample space for a random variable x representing the outcome of a roll of a die is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}- When using generalized models, the trick is to pick a distribution with a sample space that matches the range of values obtainable by data - Logistic regression - Match Bernoulli distribution <span class="mohu">(Example 2)</span> - Poisson regression - Match Poisson distribution <span class="mohu">(Example 3)</span>## Uses of Distributions in Data Analysis- Statistical models make distributional assumptions on various parameters and / or parts of data- These assumptions govern: - How models are estimated - How inferences are made - How missing data may be imputed- If data do not follow an assumed distribution, inferences may be inaccurate - Sometimes a very big problem, other times not so much- Therefore, it can be helpful to check distributional assumptions prior to running statistical analysis## Continuous Univariate distributions- To demonstrate how continuous distributions work and look, we will discuss three: - Uniform distribution - Normal distribution - Chi-square distribution- Each are described a set of parameters, which we will later see are what give us our inferences when we analysis data- What we then do is put constraints on those parameters based on hypothesized effects in data## Uniform distribution- The uniform distribution is how to help set up how continuous distributions work - Typically, used for simulation studies that parameters are randomly generated- For a continuous random variable x that ranges from (a, b), the uniform probability density function is: $f(x) = \frac{1}{b-a}$- The uniform distribution has two parameters```{r} x = seq(0, 3, .1) y = dunif(x, min = 0, max = 3) ggplot() + geom_point(aes(x = x, y = y)) + geom_path(aes(x = x, y = y)) + theme_bw() ```------------------------------------------------------------------------```{shinylive-r}#| standalone: true#| viewerHeight: 800library(shiny)library(bslib)library(ggplot2)library(dplyr)library(tidyr)set.seed(1234)# Define UI for application that draws a histogramui <- fluidPage( # Application title titlePanel("Uniform distribution"), # Sidebar with a slider input for number of bins sidebarLayout( sidebarPanel( sliderInput("a", "Lower Bound (a):", min = 1, max = 20, value = 1, animate = animationOptions(interval = 5000, loop = TRUE)), uiOutput("b_slider") ), # Show a plot of the generated distribution mainPanel( plotOutput("distPlot") ) ))# Define server logic required to draw a histogramx <- seq(0, 40, .02)server <- function(input, output) { observeEvent(input$a, { output$b_slider <<- renderUI({ sliderInput("b", "Upper Bound (b):", min = as.numeric(input$a), max = 40, value = as.numeric(input$a) + 1) }) # browser() y <<- reactive({dunif(x, min = as.numeric(input$a), max = as.numeric(input$b))}) }) # browser() observe({ output$distPlot <- renderPlot({ # generate bins based on input$bins from ui.R ggplot() + aes(x = x, y = y())+ geom_point() + geom_path() + labs(x = "x", y = "probability") + theme_bw() + theme(text = element_text(size = 20)) }) })}# Run the application shinyApp(ui = ui, server = server)```## More on the Uniform Distribution- To demonstrate how PDFs work, we will try a few values:```{r}conditions <-tribble(~x, ~a, ~b, .5, 0, 1, .75, 0, 1,15, 0, 20,15, 10, 20) |>mutate(y =dunif(x, min = a, max = b))conditions```- The uniform PDF has the feature that all values of ***x*** are equally likely across the sample space of the distribution - Therefore, you do not see ***x*** in the PDF $f(x)$- The mean of the uniform distribution is $\frac{1}{2}(a+b)$- The variance of the uniform distribution is $\frac{1}{12}(b-a)^2$## Univariate Normal Distribution- For a continuous random variable ***x*** (ranging from $-\infty$ to $\infty$), the univariate normal distribution function is:$$f(x) = \frac1{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma^2_x}}\exp(-\frac{(x-\mu_x)^2}{2\sigma^2_x})$$- The shape of the distribution is governed by two parameters: - The mean $\mu_x$ - The variance $\sigma^2_x$ - These parameters are called **sufficient statistics** (they contain all the information about the distribution)- The skewness (lean) and kurtosis (peakedness) are fixed- Standard notation for normal distributions is $x\sim N(\mu_x, \sigma^2_x)$ - Read as: "*x* follows a normal distribution with a mean $\mu_x$ and a variance $\sigma^2_x$"- Linear combinations of random variables following normal distributions result in a random variable that is normally distributed## Univariate Normal Distribution in R: pnormDensity (`dnorm`), distribution function (`pnorm`), quantile function (`qnorm`) and random generation (`rnorm`) for the normal distribution with mean equal to `mean` and standard deviation equal to `sd`.```{r}Z =seq(-5, 5, .1) # Z-scoreggplot() +aes(x = Z, y =pnorm(q = Z, lower.tail =TRUE)) +geom_point() +geom_path() +labs(x ="Z-score", y ="Cumulative probability",title ="`pnorm()` gives the cumulative probability function P(X < T)")```## Univariate Normal Distribution in R: dnorm```{r}x <-seq(-5, 5, .1)params <-list(y_set1 =c(mu =0, sigma2 =0.2),y_set2 =c(mu =0, sigma2 =1.0),y_set3 =c(mu =0, sigma2 =5.0),y_set4 =c(mu =-2, sigma2 =0.5))y <-sapply(params, function(param) dnorm(x, mean = param['mu'], sd = param['sigma2']))dt <-cbind(x, y) |>as.data.frame() |>pivot_longer(starts_with("y_"))ggplot(dt) +geom_path(aes(x = x, y = value, color = name, group = name), linewidth =1.3) +scale_color_manual(values =1:4,name ="",labels =c('y_set1'=expression(mu*"=0, "*sigma^2*"=.02"),'y_set2'=expression(mu*"=0, "*sigma^2*"=1.0"),'y_set3'=expression(mu*"=0, "*sigma^2*"=5.0"),'y_set4'=expression(mu*"=-2, "*sigma^2*"=0.5")) ) +theme_bw() +theme(legend.position ="top", text =element_text(size =13))```## Chi-Square Distribution- Another frequently used univariate distribution is the Chi-square distribution - Sampling distribution of the variance follows a chi-square distribution - Likelihood ratios follow a chi-square distribution- For a continuous random variable *x* (ranging from 0 to $\infty$), the chi-square distribution is given by: $$ f(x) =\frac1{2^{\frac{\upsilon}{2}} \Gamma(\frac{\upsilon}{2})} x^{\frac{\upsilon}{2}-1} \exp(-\frac{x}2) $$- $\Gamma(\cdot)$ is called the gamma function- The chi-square distribution is govern by one parameter: $\upsilon$ (the degrees of freedom) - The mean is equal to $\upsilon$; the variance is equal to 2$\upsilon$------------------------------------------------------------------------```{r}x <-seq(0.01, 15, .01)df <-c(1, 2, 3, 5, 10)dt2 <-as.data.frame(sapply(df, \(df) dchisq(x, df = df)))dt2_with_x <-cbind(x = x, dt2)dt2_with_x |>pivot_longer(starts_with("V")) |>ggplot() +geom_path(aes(x = x, y = value, color = name), linewidth =1.2) +scale_y_continuous(limits =c(0, 1)) +scale_color_discrete(name ="", labels =paste("df =", df)) +labs(y ="f(x)") +theme_bw() +theme(legend.position ="top", text =element_text(size =13))```------------------------------------------------------------------------```{shinylive-r}#| standalone: true#| viewerHeight: 800library(shiny)library(bslib)library(ggplot2)library(dplyr)library(tidyr)set.seed(1234)# Define UI for application that draws a histogramui <- fluidPage( # Application title titlePanel("Chi-square distribution"), # Sidebar with a slider input for number of bins sidebarLayout( sidebarPanel( sliderInput("Df", "Degree of freedom:", min = 1, max = 20, value = 1, animate = animationOptions(interval = 5000, loop = TRUE)), verbatimTextOutput(outputId = "Df_display") ), # Show a plot of the generated distribution mainPanel( plotOutput("distPlot") ) ))# Define server logic required to draw a histogramserver <- function(input, output) { x <- seq(0.01, 15, .01) df <- reactive({input$Df}) output$Df_display <- renderText({ paste0("DF = ", df()) }) output$distPlot <- renderPlot({ # generate bins based on input$bins from ui.R dt2 <- as.data.frame(sapply(df(), \(df) dchisq(x, df = df))) dt2_with_x <- cbind(x = x, dt2) dt2_with_x |> pivot_longer(starts_with("V")) |> ggplot() + geom_path(aes(x = x, y = value), linewidth = 1.2) + scale_y_continuous(limits = c(0, 1)) + labs(y = "f(x)") + theme_bw() + theme(legend.position = "top", text = element_text(size = 13)) })}# Run the application shinyApp(ui = ui, server = server)```# Marginal, Joint, And Conditional Distribution## Moving from One to Multiple Random Variables- When more than one random variable is present, there are several different types of statistical distributions:- We will first consider two discrete random variables: - *x* is the outcome of the flip of a penny {$H_p$, $T_p$} - $f(x=H_p) = .5$; $f(x =T_p) = .5$ - *z* is the outcome of the flip of a dime {$H_d$, $T_d$} - $f(z=H_p) = .5$; $f(z =T_p) = .5$- We will consider the following distributions: - Marginal distribution - The distribution of one variable only (either $f(x)$ or $f(z)$) - Joint distribution - $f(x, z)$: the distribution of both variables (both *x* and *z*) - **Conditional distribution** - The distribution of one variable, conditional on values of the other: - $f(x|z)$: the distribution of *x* given *z* - $f(z|x)$: the distribution of *z* given x## Marginal Distribution- Marginal distributions are what we have worked with exclusively up to this point: they represent the distribution by itself - Continuous univariate distributions - Categorical distributions - The flip of a penny - The flip of a dime## Joint Distribution- Joint distributions describe the distribution of more than one variable, simultaneously - Representations of multiple variables collected- Commonly, the joint distribution function is denoted with all random variables separated by commas - In our example, $f(x,z)$ is the joint distribution of the outcome of flipping both a penny and a dime - As both are discrete, the joint distribution has four possible values:\(1\) $f(x = H_p,z=H_d)$ (2) $f(x = H_p,z=T_d)$ (3) $f(x = T_p,z=H_d)$ (4) $f(x = T_p,z=T_d)$- Joint distributions are **multivariate distributions**- We will use joint distributions to introduce two topics - Joint distributions of independent variables - Joint distributions – used in maximum likelihood estimation## Joint Distributions of Independent Random Variables- Random variables are said to be independent if the occurrence of one event makes it neither more nor less probable of another event - For joint distributions, this means: $f(x,z)=f(x)f(z)$- In our example, flipping a penny and flipping a dime are independent – so we can complete the following table of their joint distribution: | | z = $H_d$ | z = $T_d$ | Marginal (Penny) | |------------------|-------------------|------------------|------------------| | $x = H_p$ | $\color{tomato}{f(x=H_p, z=H_d)}$ | $\color{tomato}{f(x=H_p, z=T_d)}$ | $\color{turquoise}{f(z=H_p)}$ | | $x = T_p$ | $\color{tomato}{f(x= T_p, z=H_d)}$ | $\color{tomato}{f(x=T_p, z=T_d)}$ | $\color{turquoise}{f(z=T_d)}$ | | Marginal (Dime) | $\color{turquoise}{f(z=H_d)}$ | $\color{turquoise}{f(z=T_d)}$ | |## Joint Distributions of Independent Random Variables- Because the coin flips are independent, this because:| | z = $H_d$ | z = $T_d$ | Marginal (Penny) ||-----------------|-------------------|-------------------|-----------------|| $x = H_p$ | $\color{tomato}{f(x=H_p)f( z=H_d)}$ | $\color{tomato}{f(x=H_p)f( z=T_d)}$ | $\color{turquoise}{f(z=H_p)}$ || $x = T_p$ | $\color{tomato}{f(x= T_p)f( z=H_d)}$ | $\color{tomato}{f(x=T_p)f( z=T_d)}$ | $\color{turquoise}{f(z=T_d)}$ || Marginal (Dime) | $\color{turquoise}{f(z=H_d)}$ | $\color{turquoise}{f(z=T_d)}$ | |- Then, with numbers:| | z = $H_d$ | z = $T_d$ | Marginal (Penny) ||------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|| $x = H_p$ | $\color{tomato}{.25}$ | $\color{tomato}{.25}$ | $\color{turquoise}{.5}$ || $x = T_p$ | $\color{tomato}{.25}$ | $\color{tomato}{.25}$ | $\color{turquoise}{.5}$ || Marginal (Dime) | $\color{turquoise}{.5}$ | $\color{turquoise}{.5}$ | |## Marginalizing Across a Joint Distribution- If you had a joint distribution, $\color{orchid}{f(x, z)}$, but wanted the marginal distribution of either variable ($f(x)$ or $f(z)$) you would have to **marginalize** across one dimension of the joint distribution.- For [**categorical random variables**]{.underline}, marginalize = sum across every value of z$$f(x) = \sum_zf(x, z)$$- For example, $f(x = H_p) = f(x = H_p, z=H_d) +f(x = H_p, z=T_d)=.5$- For [continuous random variables,]{.underline} marginalize = integrate across z - The integral: $$ f(x) = \int_zf(x,z)dz $$## Conditional Distributions- For two random variables x and z, a conditional distribution is written as: $f(z|x)$ - The distribution of z given x- The conditional distribution is equal to the joint distribution divided by the marginal distribution of the conditioning random variable $$ f(z|x) = \frac{f(z,x)}{f(x)} $$- Conditional distributions are found everywhere in statistics - The general linear model uses the conditional distribution variable $$ Y \sim N(\beta_0+\beta_1X, \sigma^2_e) $$## Example: Conditional Distribution- For two discrete random variables with {0, 1} values, the conditional distribution can be shown in a contingency table:| | z = $H_d$ | z = $T_d$ | Marginal (Penny) ||------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|| $x = H_p$ | $\color{tomato}{.25}$ | $\color{tomato}{.25}$ | $\color{turquoise}{.5}$ || $x = T_p$ | $\color{tomato}{.25}$ | $\color{tomato}{.25}$ | $\color{turquoise}{.5}$ || Marginal (Dime) | $\color{turquoise}{.5}$ | $\color{turquoise}{.5}$ | |Conditional: $f(z | x= H_p)$:$f(z=H_d|x =H_p) = \frac{f(z=H_d, x=H_p}{f(x = H_p)} = \frac{.25}{.5}=.5$$f(z = T_d | x = H_p)= \frac{f(z=T_d, x=H_p}{f(x=H_p)} = \frac{.25}{.5} = .5$# Expected Values and The Algebra of Expectation## Expected Values- Expected values are statistics taken the sample space of a random variable: they are essentially weighted averages```{r} #| output-location: default set.seed(1234) x = rnorm(100, mean = 0, sd = 1) weights = dnorm(x, mean = 0, sd = 1) mean(weights * x) ```- The weights used in computing this average correspond to the probabilities (for a discrete random variable) or to the densities (for a continuous random variable)::: {.callout-note font-size="1.2em"}The expected value is represented by $E(x)$The actual statistic that is being weighted by the PDF is put into the parenthesis where x is now:::- Expected values allow us to understand what a statistical model implies about data, for instance: - How a GLM specifies the (conditional) mean and variance of a DV## Expected Value Calculation- For discrete random variables, the expected value is found by: $$ E(x) = \sum_x xP(X=x) $$- For example, the expected value of a roll of a die is: $$ E(x) = (1)\frac16+ (2)\frac16+(3)\frac16+(4)\frac16+(5)\frac16+6\frac16 $$- For continuous random variables, the expected value is found by $$ E(x) = \int_x xf(x)dx $$- We won't be calculating theoretical expected values with calculus... we use them only to see how models imply things about out data## Variance and Covariance... As Expected Values- A distribution's theoretical variance can also be written as an expected value: $$ V(x) = E(x-E(x))^2 = E(x -\mu_x)^2 $$ - This formula helps us understand predictions made by GLMs and how that corresponds to statistical parameters we interpret- For a roll of a die, the theoretical variance is: $$ V(x) = E(x - 3.5)^2 = \frac16(1-3.5)^2 + \frac16(2-3.5)^2 + \frac16(3-3.5)^2 + \frac16(4-3.5)^2 + \frac16(5-3.5)^2 + \frac16(6-3.5)^2 = 2.92 $$- Likewise, for a pair of random variable *x* and *z*, the covariance can be found from their joint distributions: $$ \text{Cov}(x,z)=E(xz)-E(x)E(z) = E(xz)-\mu_x\mu_z $$```{r}#| results: holdset.seed(1234)N =100x =rnorm(N, 2, 1)z =rnorm(N, 3, 1)xz = x*z(Cov_xz =mean(xz)-mean(x)*mean(z)) / ((N-1)/N) # unbiased covariancecov(x, z)```# Linear Combination of Random Variables## Linear Combinations of Random Variables- A linear combination is an expression constructed from a set of terms by multiplying each term by a constant and then adding the results $$ x = c + a_1z_1+a_2z_2+a_3z_3 +\cdots+a_nz_n $$- More generally, linear combinations of random variables have specific implications for the mean, variance, and possibly covariance of the new random variable- As such, there are predicable ways in which the means, variances, and covariances change## Algebra of Expectations- Sums of Constants$$E(x+c) = E(x)+c \\\text{Var}(x+c) = \text{Var}(x) \\\text{Cov}(x+c, z) = \text{Cov}(x, z)$$### ExampleImagine for weight variable, each individual increases 3 lbs:```{r}#| output-location: defaultset.seed(1234)library(ESRM64503)x = dataSexHeightWeight$weightLBc_ =3z = dataSexHeightWeight$heightINmean(x + c_); mean(x)+c_var(x + c_); var(x)cov(x, z); cov(x+c_, z) # decimal place issue, near() accepts two values' diff less than .00001```------------------------------------------------------------------------- Products of Constants:$$E(cx) = cE(x) \\\text{Var}(cx) = c^2\text{Var}(x) \\\text{Cov}(cx, dz) = c*d*\text{Cov}(x, z)$$Imagine you wanted to convert weight from pounds to kilograms (where 1 pound = .453 kg) and convert height from inches to cm (where 1 inch = 2.54 cm)```{r}#| output-location: defaultc_ = .453mean(x*c_); mean(x)*c_var(x*c_); var(x)*c_^2d_ =2.54cov(c_*x, d_*z);c_*d_*cov(x, z)```------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sums of Multiple Random Variables:$$E(cx+dz) = cE(x) + dE(z) \\\text{Var}(cx+dz) = c^2\text{Var}(x) + d^2\text{Var}(z) + 2c*d*\text{Cov}(x,z)\\$$```{r}#| output-location: defaultmean(x*c_+z*d_); mean(x)*c_+mean(z)*d_var(x*c_+z*d_); c_^2*var(x) + d_^2*var(z) +2*c_*d_*cov(x, z)```## Where We Use This Algebra- Remember how we calculated the standard error of conditional main effect from simple main effect and interaction effect$$\mathbf{Test = 82.20 + 2.16*Senior + 7.76*New - 3.04*Senior*New}$$- Conditional Main Effects of Senior When New is 1 is (2.16 - 3.04) = -0.88 - We know that $Var(\beta_{Senior})$ is 0.575, $Var(\beta_{Senior*New})$ is 1.151, and $Cov(\beta_{Senior}, \beta_{Senior*New})$ is -0.575.```{r}#| output-location: defaultmodel1 <-lm(Test ~ Senior + New + Senior * New, data = dataTestExperiment)vcov(model1)```Then, $$\mathbf{Var(\beta_{Senior}+\beta_{Senior*New}) = Var(\beta_{Senior}) + Var(\beta_{Senior*New}) + 2Cov(\beta_{Senior},\beta_{Senior*New})\\ = 0.575 + 1.151 - 2* 0.575 = 0.576} $$Thus, $SE(\beta_{Senior}+\beta_{Senior*New})=0.759$## Combining the GLM with Expections- Using the algebra of expectations predicting Y from X and Z:$$\hat{Y}_p=E(Y_p)=E(\beta_0+\beta_1X_p+\beta_2Z_p+\beta_3X_pZ_p+e_p) \\= \beta_0+\beta_1X_p+\beta_2Z_p+\beta_3X_pZ_p+E(e_p) \\= \beta_0+\beta_1X_p+\beta_2Z_p+\beta_3X_pZ_p$$- The variance of $f(Y_p|X_p, Z_p)$:$$V(Y_P)=V(\beta_0+\beta_1X_p+\beta_2Z_p+\beta_3X_pZ_p+e_p)\\ = V(e_p)=\sigma_e^2$$## Examining What This Means in the Context of Data- If you recall from the regression analysis of the height/weight data, the final model we decided to interpret: Model 5$$W_p = \beta_0+\beta_1 (H_p-\bar{H}) +\beta_2F_p+\beta_3 (H_p-\bar{H}) F_p + e_p$$where $e_p \sim N(0, \sigma_e^2)$```{r}#| output-location: defaultdat <- dataSexHeightWeightdat$heightIN_MC <- dat$heightIN -mean(dat$heightIN)dat$female <- dat$sex =='F'mod5 <-lm(weightLB ~ heightIN_MC + female + female*heightIN_MC, data = dat)summary(mod5)```## Picturing the GLM with Distributions- The distributional assumptions of the GLM are the reason why we do not need to worry if our dependent variable is normally distributed- Our dependent variable should be conditionally normal- We can check this assumption by checking our assumption about the residuals,$e_p \sim N(0, \sigma^2_e)$ ```{r}#| echo: false#| output-location: defaultlibrary(ggridges)library(ggplot2)library(dplyr)library(tidyr)set.seed(1234)pred_y <-predict(mod5, newdata = dat)pred_y_dat <-data.frame(Point =names(pred_y), weightLB = pred_y, heightIN_MC = dat$heightIN_MC)sigma <-sd(residuals(mod5))residual_dat <-as.data.frame(sapply(pred_y, \(x) rnorm(100, mean = x, sd = sigma)))residual_dat_long <- residual_dat |>pivot_longer(everything())colnames(residual_dat_long) <-c("Point", "weightLBVaribant")residual_dat_long <- residual_dat_long |>left_join(pred_y_dat) |>arrange(Point) ggplot() +geom_density_ridges(aes(x = weightLBVaribant, y =as.factor(round(heightIN_MC, 3))), data = residual_dat_long, rel_min_height =0.005, alpha = .5,scale = .7) +geom_point(aes(col = female, x = weightLB, y =as.factor(round(heightIN_MC, 3))), data= dat) +geom_smooth(aes(col = female, group = female, x = weightLB, y =as.factor(round(heightIN_MC, 3))), method ='lm', se =FALSE, data= dat) +labs(y ="HeightLB", x ="WeightLB") +theme_classic() +coord_flip()```## Assessing Distributional Assumptions Graphically```{r}plot(mod5)```## Hypothesis Tests for NormalityIf a given test is **significant**, then it is saying that your data do not come from a normal distributionIn practice, test will give diverging information quite frequently:the best way to evaluate normality is to consider both plots and tests (approximate = good)```{r}shapiro.test(mod5$residuals)```## Wrapping Up- Today was an introduction to mathematical statistics as a way to understand the implications statistical models make about data- Although many of these topics do not seem directly relevant, they help provide insights that untrained analysts may not easily attain